Sciences of Pharmacy

Intan Permata Sari, Esti Mulatsari, Vinska Nabila

Chalcone (1,3-diphenyl-2-propen-1-one), an important precursor of flavonoids, has attracted considerable interest because of its broad biological potential. This study evaluated the ultrasonic-assisted Claisen–Schmidt condensation of equimolar acetophenone and benzaldehyde (0.04 mol each) using sodium hydroxide as the catalyst. The effects of reaction temperature (30, 40, and 50 °C) and sonication time (10, 20, and 30 min) on product yield were investigated with a 20 kHz ultrasonic bath. The synthesized products were characterized by thin-layer chromatography, melting point determination, FT-IR, UV–Vis, LC–MS/MS, and NMR analyses. Sonication time exerted a greater influence on yield than temperature, with the highest crude yield (91.00%) obtained at 30 °C after 30 min. Spectroscopic analyses confirmed chalcone as the major product; however, the elevated melting point (186.1–186.7 °C), together with TLC and LC–MS/MS results, indicated the presence of co-eluting impurities, suggesting incomplete product purity. Antioxidant activity measured by the DPPH assay produced IC₅₀ values ranging from 75.93 to 191.39 µg/mL, with the strongest activity observed under the optimum synthesis condition (30 °C, 30 min), compared with 5.97 µg/mL for ascorbic acid. Considering the weak intrinsic radical-scavenging activity of pure chalcone, the observed antioxidant effect is likely attributable to co-produced impurities rather than chalcone itself. Ultrasonic-assisted synthesis substantially reduced reaction time while achieving a high crude yield. However, further optimization of purification is required to obtain pure chalcone and improve the overall sustainability of the process as a green synthetic approach.

Sciences of Pharmacy

Rahmatul Qodriah, Yuslia Noviani, Okta Nursanti, Pra Panca Bayu Chandra, Rindika Ayu Andini, Yulius Evan Christian

Sappan wood (Caesalpinia sappan L.) contains high levels of phenolic compounds, particularly brazilin and flavonoids, which offer strong natural antioxidant potential. Evaluating its bioactivity and physicochemical stability after processing is essential for cosmetic applications. This study developed a lip scrub formulation containing sappan wood bark extract as a natural antioxidant source and evaluated its physicochemical properties and antioxidant activity. Botanically authenticated raw material was extracted using a digestion method with water, followed by concentration. The extract was evaluated for organoleptic properties, pH, drying loss, and DPPH radical scavenging activity. Three lip scrub formulations with varying extract concentrations were evaluated for organoleptic properties, homogeneity, spreadability, pH, DPPH antioxidant activity, and total flavonoid content using the aluminum chloride colorimetric method. The extract showed very strong antioxidant activity with an IC50 of 15.25 ± 0.03 μg/mL and a total flavonoid content of 35.2551 mg QE/g. All formulations exhibited acceptable physical characteristics and pH values safe for lip application. The formulations maintained very strong antioxidant activity, with IC50 values of 26.73 ± 0.07 μg/mL, 26.65 ± 0.08 μg/mL, and 26.56 ± 0.01 μg/mL for Formulas I, II, and III, respectively. Formula III demonstrated the lowest IC50 value and the highest flavonoid content. Although processing slightly reduced antioxidant capacity compared to the crude extract, the formulations successfully retained significant antioxidant activity, confirming sappan wood bark extract as a promising natural ingredient for functional lip care products.

Sciences of Pharmacy

Nur Khairi, Maulita Indrisari, Andi Nur Aisyah, Marwati Marwati

Oxidative stress contributes to skin damage, highlighting the need for plant-derived topical antioxidants. This study aimed to evaluate antioxidant activity of Andrographis paniculata root extract and develop a stable antioxidant cream. Dried roots were macerated with 70% ethanol, and antioxidant activity was assessed using the DPPH scavenging assay with vitamin C as control. Three oil-in-water cream formulations containing 0.25% extract were prepared with different stearic acid and triethanolamine concentrations and evaluated after accelerated storage for organoleptic properties, pH, homogeneity, viscosity, spreadability, adhesion, emulsion type, and antioxidant activity. Extraction yielded 6.66% blackish-brown extract. The extract showed concentration-dependent antioxidant activity, with an IC₅₀ of 16.55 ppm, while vitamin C showed activity with an IC₅₀ of 4.72 ppm. All creams remained homogeneous, retained oil-in-water emulsion type, and showed no visible phase separation. Accelerated storage significantly increased pH in all formulations, significantly reduced viscosity only in Formula I, significantly increased spreadability only in Formula III, and did not significantly affect adhesion time. Higher stearic acid and triethanolamine concentrations increased viscosity and adhesion but reduced spreadability. The cream retained antioxidant activity, with an IC₅₀ of 69.61 ppm. Overall, Formula II showed the most stable physical profile and is a promising candidate for herbal antioxidant development.

Sciences of Pharmacy

Lili S Bawan, Muh. Taufiqurrahman, Andrian Fernandes, Nurillahi Febria Leswana, Risny Oklyan, Maria Elvina Tresia Butar-Butar

Corn starch (Zea mays L.) is widely used as a pharmaceutical excipient because of its biocompatibility, biodegradability, and non-toxicity. However, its application is limited by poor flow properties, low water solubility, and a tendency toward retrogradation, which may reduce its effectiveness in solid dosage formulations. Although pregelatinization has been used to improve starch functionality, studies on the combined application of pregelatinization and co-processing with sodium starch glycolate (SSG) remain limited. Therefore, this study aimed to develop and characterize co-processed pregelatinized corn starch as a novel pharmaceutical excipient. Pregelatinized corn starch (PCS) was prepared and co-processed with SSG at ratios of 1:1, 1:2, and 1:3 (g/g). The resulting powders were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and particle size analysis (PSA). Powder properties, including flow rate, angle of repose, moisture content, and bulk density, were also evaluated. The co-processed formulations exhibited diffraction peaks at approximately 23°, indicating structural modification. DSC analysis showed enhanced thermal stability, with transition temperatures ranging from 63.78 °C to 96.50 °C. FTIR confirmed physical interactions without the formation of new chemical bonds. The flow rate increased from 0.472 g/s in native corn starch to 3.852 g/s in F3, while the angle of repose decreased from 37.38° to 24.1° in F1. Overall, co-processing improved the physicochemical and functional properties of corn starch, demonstrating its potential as a multifunctional pharmaceutical excipient for solid dosage forms.

Sciences of Pharmacy

Berly Surya Dharma, Seftika Sari, Prasojo Pribadi

Pharmacies face the dual challenge of maintaining the quality of pharmaceutical services while ensuring operational efficiency and business sustainability. The year 2023 was selected as a critical post-loss period because PT Kimia Farma Apotek maintained a substantial revenue base but had not yet achieved healthy profitability or operating cash flow. This study aimed to evaluate the company’s performance across the four Balanced Scorecard (BSC) perspectives, explain the imbalance among these perspectives, and formulate recovery priorities. A descriptive observational design with an explanatory sequential mixed-methods approach was used. Company secondary data were analysed quantitatively and subsequently explored through semi-structured interviews with four purposively selected managerial informants. The credibility of the findings was strengthened through source triangulation, methodological triangulation, and member checking. The results showed that the customer perspective was relatively strong and that the organisation possessed learning, technological, and innovation capabilities. However, profitability and operating cash flow remained negative, whereas the national aggregate inventory turnover ratio was 4.24 times per year, equivalent to approximately 86 days of inventory holding. This aggregate turnover figure was not classified in isolation because qualitative findings indicated continuing challenges in inventory allocation, product availability, slow-moving items, and replenishment across the pharmacy network. Internal processes were in place, but promotional activities, complaint resolution, training, and technology utilisation had not been consistently translated into cost efficiency, balanced inventory allocation, service availability, or financial outcomes. The principal finding was a conversion gap: non-financial strengths had not yet been converted into profitability and cash generation. Theoretically, the study demonstrates that the BSC causal chain is conditional rather than automatic because it depends on the reliability of internal processes, disciplined resource allocation, and the quality of strategy execution. Managerial priorities include improving revenue quality, inventory allocation and availability, cost control, customer relationships, employee experience, and data-driven performance governance.

Sciences of Pharmacy

Muhammad Asman Setiawan, Karmilah Karmilah, Musdalipah Musdalipah, Agung Wibawa Mahatva Yodha, Eny Nurhikma, Asmaul Mutmainna, Nirwati Rusli

Etlingera calophrys, commonly known as olae, is an endemic plant in the family Zingiberaceae, traditionally recognized for its anti-inflammatory properties, although scientific studies remain limited. This study aims to identify bioactive compounds in olae rhizomes using Liquid Chromatography–High Resolution Mass Spectrometry (LC-HRMS) and to develop an emulgel formulation as a more stable and effective topical delivery system. Olae rhizome was extracted by maceration using 96% ethanol, and the metabolite profile was analyzed by LC-HRMS. The emulgel was prepared in concentrations of 1%, 2%, 3% and evaluated for organoleptic properties, pH, adhesion, spreadability, irritation, homogeneity, and stability. In vitro anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated using the bovine serum albumin (BSA) protein denaturation inhibition assay. LC-HRMS analysis identified compounds yakuchinone A, 4-methoxybenzaldehyde, betaine, choline, maxacalcitol, and (9-cis)-Retinal, which are known to have biological activity in inhibiting inflammatory mediators. The formulation of an emulgel was successfully produced and met the physical and stability evaluation parameters, including organoleptic, homogeneity, pH, adhesion, spreadability, irritation, and stability. The results of in vitro anti-inflammatory activity showed that the emulgel had anti-inflammatory activity with IC₅₀ values of 70.54 mg/L, 64.86 mg/L, and 52.55 mg/L, respectively. However, these results represent preliminary acellular anti-inflammatory activity and do not establish transdermal permeability or therapeutic efficacy. Further studies involving extract-release and skin-permeation testing, cell-based anti-inflammatory models, toxicity assessment, and in vivo validation are required to determine the topical therapeutic potential of E. calophrys rhizome emulgel.

Sciences of Pharmacy

Moh. Firman Irwanto, Arif Budi Setianto, Ade Abiyyatun Mahdiyyah, Maratun Shoaliha, Amzal Mortin Andas, Ashar Prima, Indah Puspitasari, Andi Tenri Nurwahidah, Fauziah H Wada

Tadalafil is a BCS Class II drug with very low aqueous solubility, limiting its oral bioavailability. Solid dispersion technology using polyethylene glycol (PEG) is an effective strategy to enhance solubility. This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of PEG 4000 and PEG 6000 as carriers in amorphous solid dispersions of tadalafil prepared by the melting method. Solid dispersions were prepared at weight ratios (tadalafil:polymer) of 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, and 1:4 for both PEG 4000 and PEG 6000 using the fusion technique (70 °C). The formulations were characterized by Powder X-Ray Diffraction (PXRD), Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Solubility studies were conducted in distilled water and phosphate buffer (pH 6.8) and analyzed via a validated HPLC method. Solid dispersions with PEG 6000 at a 1:3 ratio (F7) exhibited the highest solubility enhancement, reaching 16.08 ± 0.6 µg/mL in water. For PEG 4000, the 1:2 ratio (F2) was optimal (8.20 ± 1.3 µg/mL). PXRD and DSC analyses confirmed the transformation of crystalline tadalafil into an amorphous state within the polymer matrix. FTIR spectra indicated shifts in N-H and C=O bands, suggesting hydrogen bond formation. In conclusion, PEG 6000 produced a superior solid dispersion for tadalafil compared to PEG 4000. The primary mechanism is the formation of an amorphous system stabilized by hydrogen bonding. This study provides a formulation basis for improving the oral delivery of tadalafil.

Sciences of Pharmacy

Yeni Farida, Rizki Amalia Taufany

Potentially inappropriate medications (PIMs) are a common issue in older adults. Older adults often require multiple medications to manage cardiometabolic disease. This study aimed to identify potentially inappropriate medications and potential inappropriate omissions using STOPP/START criteria in older adult patients with cardiometabolic disease. We conducted an observational analytical study using retrospective data at a secondary care teaching hospital in Sukoharjo, Central Java. We included older adult patients admitted to the inpatient wards between January and June 2022. The prescriptions were analyzed using the STOPP/START Criteria 2016. The Chi-square test analysis was performed to examine the association between the number of drugs and the occurrence of PIMs. We included 97 geriatric inpatients. All patients received at least 5 drugs during each admission, 35.06% were classified as having hyperpolypharmacy. Among the 97 patients, 36.08% had PIM prescriptions, and 29.89% had PPOs. There was a statistically significant association between the number of drugs and PIMs in older adults. Compared with patients receiving > 10 medications, those receiving 5–10 medications had lower odds of PIM use (OR 0.409, 95% CI 0.173–0.969; p = 0.040). These findings highlight high medication burden as an important marker for targeted medication review in geriatric inpatients, particularly those with cardiometabolic multimorbidity.

Sciences of Pharmacy

Purwaniati Purwaniati, Rahmana Emran Kartasasmita, Maria Immaculata Iwo, Muhamad Insanu

Natural preservatives derived from medicinal plants require a thorough safety evaluation before they can be used in food. Ginggiang has traditionally been used by the Kuta indigenous community in Ciamis, West Java, Indonesia, to preserve palm sap; however, its safety profile has not been evaluated. In this study, a solid preservative preparation was developed from the decolorized ethanolic extract of ginggiang leaves (SPP-ED), and its safety profile was assessed after repeated oral administration. The study focused on subchronic oral toxicity and identified the target organs affected by repeated exposure to SPP-ED. In a 90-day experiment, both male and female Wistar rats received SPP-ED at doses of 45, 150, or 1500 mg/kg body weight per day. Satellite groups were included to evaluate recovery. Various parameters, including behavioral, hematological, biochemical, urinalysis, organ index, and histopathological evaluations, were systematically analyzed. No mortality was observed during the study. The results showed that subchronic exposure to SPP-ED had sex-specific effects: female rats experienced renal alterations, characterized by changes in urinalysis, elevated blood urea nitrogen and creatinine levels, and signs of tubular degeneration. In contrast, male rats exhibited pulmonary changes, including an increased lung-to-body weight ratio, alveolitis, and fibrosis. The D1 dose (45 mg/kg body weight/day) was the lowest dose at which potentially adverse histopathological changes were observed; however, a definitive NOAEL and LOAEL could not be established. Further studies using lower dose levels are warranted to better characterize the dose-response relationship and establish the NOAEL and LOAEL of SPP-ED.

Sciences of Pharmacy

Wahyu Bachtiar, Tyssa Mariyana, Nurul Hidayatri, Bheta Sari Dewi, Ayu Werawati

Topical steroid withdrawal (TSW) is an iatrogenic dermatosis following prolonged topical corticosteroid use, with limited non-steroidal alternatives. This study developed a multi-extract emulgel containing Andrographis paniculata, Tinospora cordifolia, Curcuma longa, and Piper nigrum and screened its nitric oxide (NO)-scavenging activity. Standardized ethanolic extracts were incorporated into eight emulgels (F1–F8) using a 2³ full factorial design, varying A. paniculata (3–5%), T. cordifolia (4–6%), and C. longa (4–6%) with P. nigrum fixed at 10%. Physical characterization showed homogeneous oil-in-water emulgels with pH 5.26–5.90, spreadability 6.7–6.8 cm, and viscosity 12,560–17,120 cP. IC₅₀ values for all formulations exceeded the highest tested concentration (100 µg/mL) without reaching the concentration-response curve plateau, and are reported as > 100 µg/mL compared to 18.48 µg/mL for ascorbic acid. Descriptive ranking placed F4 first, followed by F7 and F8. Exploratory factorial analysis indicated that C. longa levels and the A. paniculata × T. cordifolia interaction drove IC₅₀ variation, showing that higher extract loading did not enhance activity. Because this cell-free assay reflects only direct chemical NO scavenging, findings are strictly preliminary and descriptive. Future validation requires independent runs across an expanded concentration range capturing the full upper plateau. F4 is tentatively proposed as the lead formulation for confirmatory testing and subsequent stability, cell-based, and in vivo studies.

Sciences of Pharmacy

Annas Binarjo, Nuri Ari Efiana

As a barrier, the skin prevents organisms and xenobiotic substances, including toxins, from entering the body and protects the body from losing essential substances, especially water and electrolytes. This vital barrier function is compromised in diseased skin, particularly atopic eczema (AE), due to significant structural changes in the intercellular lipid of the stratum corneum. Unraveling the complex correlation between three key domains: lipid composition, structural lipid organization, and skin barrier properties, gives a valuable perspective on the prediction of disease severity and product efficacy. In this comprehensive review, the crucial role of the intercellular stratum corneum space on chemical movement across the skin is discussed first, along with the foundational stratum corneum model, as a basis for the lipid organization concept. Subsequently, data from the original articles concerning the direct effect of lipid composition on barrier properties were thoroughly discussed, aided by review articles, to draw the correlation between the three domains as stated previously. The synthesized results showed that in AE, levels of long-chain ceramides and fatty acids decrease. This reduction ostensibly compromises the skin's barrier function by diminishing the formation of essential orthorhombic crystalline structures and long-periodicity phases (LPPs).

Sciences of Pharmacy

Artha Sudibyo, Elza Sundhani, Dwi Hartanti

Mountain papaya (Vasconcellea pubescens A.DC.) is a high-altitude species with significant potential as a wild nutritious food source and a therapeutic agent. This review examines the ethnobotanical significance, phytochemical profile, and pharmacological activities of this plant. Specifically, this review contextualises the phytochemical and pharmacological data for the Wonosobo cultivar from the Dieng Plateau within the broader global dataset for this species, including data from Chile and Saudi Arabia. Traditionally, mountain papaya is used as a folk remedy to treat digestive disorders such as diarrhea and dyspepsia, as a topical agent to promote skin tissue repair, and as a natural dewormer for gastrointestinal parasites. The therapeutic properties of mountain papaya are primarily driven by phenolic acids, flavonoids, carpaine alkaloids, and proteolytic enzymes. Pharmacological evaluations highlight the plant’s potent antioxidant activity, antiglycation effects, inhibition of alpha-glucosidase and alpha-amylase, broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity, and thrombolytic properties, all of which are relevant to wound healing and the treatment of diabetes, diarrhea, and inflammatory diseases. The traditional uses of mountain papaya are corroborated by pharmacological activity evaluations attributed to related metabolites. This review highlights the need for further standardization and pharmacological validation before mountain papaya-derived products can advance into interventional clinical trials or regulatory approval of phytopharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, or functional foods.

Sciences of Pharmacy

Tri Wagiyanti, Ajeng Illastria Rosalina, Nisaa Fatayah Ulhaq

Off-label drug use is common in women’s reproductive healthcare, particularly when approved therapeutic options are limited, although the strength of supporting evidence varies substantially across drugs and indications. This narrative review aimed to synthesize and compare evidence on the off-label use of filgrastim, methotrexate, sildenafil citrate, misoprostol, letrozole, and pentoxifylline in fertility-, pregnancy-, and gynecology-related care. Relevant literature was identified from major biomedical databases and clinical trial registries and qualitatively synthesized according to study design, consistency of findings, clinical outcomes, safety findings, and methodological limitations. Methotrexate and letrozole showed comparatively well-established evidence for selected reproductive indications, particularly medical management of ectopic pregnancy and ovulation induction in women with polycystic ovary syndrome. Filgrastim and sildenafil demonstrated potential benefits for thin endometrium and implantation-related outcomes, although findings were heterogeneous and improvements in pregnancy outcomes were inconsistent. Misoprostol has extensive evidence-based reproductive and obstetric use despite variation in regulatory approval across settings. Pentoxifylline showed potential benefits for endometrial insufficiency and endometriosis-associated infertility, but evidence for sustained pregnancy and live-birth outcomes remains limited. Overall, off-label use in reproductive healthcare encompasses interventions with markedly different levels of evidentiary support. Appropriate prescribing should therefore consider evidence quality, indication-specific benefit–risk balance, patient selection, safety, and clinical monitoring.

Sciences of Pharmacy

Ade Abiyyatun Mahdiyyah, Mazaya Fadhila, Moh. Firman Irwanto, Ayu Rana Esadini, Wafa Wafa, Alfa Frista Arta, Ira Novita Sari

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) have been investigated as lipid-based delivery systems to improve the solubility, stability, bioavailability, and delivery of plant-derived phytochemicals to tumors for cancer therapy. However, the available evidence remains heterogeneous and predominantly preclinical. This systematic review aimed to evaluate the formulation strategies, physicochemical characteristics, and therapeutic applications of phytochemical-loaded SLNs in cancer therapy. The review followed the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Original research articles in English investigating phytochemical-loaded SLNs for cancer therapy were included. Data on formulation composition, preparation methods, physicochemical properties, drug release, in vitro anticancer activity, pharmacokinetics, biodistribution, and in vivo antitumor efficacy were extracted. Risk of bias was assessed using the SYRCLE tool for animal studies and an adapted checklist for in vitro studies. Thirty one articles were included in the qualitative synthesis. Most SLNs had particle sizes in the nanoscale range, approximately 50-350 nm, with encapsulation efficiencies of 43-99% and sustained-release profiles. Encapsulation generally improved cellular uptake and in vitro cytotoxicity in several cancer models. However, evidence of improved bioavailability, active tumor targeting, and in vivo antitumor efficacy remained limited and heterogeneous. Surface modification enhanced cellular uptake or organ accumulation in some studies, but validated tumor-specific targeting was not consistently demonstrated. Overall, phytochemical-loaded SLNs demonstrate potential as delivery platforms; however, clinical translation requires standardized formulations, robust in vivo studies, comprehensive safety evaluations, and clinical trials.

Sciences of Pharmacy