Skin is a multifunctional organ responsible for
thermoregulation, protection against pathogens, and maintaining hydration
through its barrier function. A healthy skin barrier requires the stratum
corneum to maintain a moisture content of over 10% (1).
However, environmental factors such as low humidity, UV radiation, and chemical
exposure can disrupt this balance, leading to conditions like dry skin or
xerosis cutis, characterized by roughness, scaling, and reduced elasticity (2, 3).
Repeated exogenous exposure can disrupt the skin barrier in maintaining water
content and lipid disruption in the stratum corneum, thus triggering
Transepidermal Waterloss (TEWL) (4).
The prevalence of dry skin in Indonesia reaches 50-80% (5).
This highlights the critical need for effective strategies and formulations to
restore and maintain the skin's barrier function, ensuring proper hydration and
overall skin health.
Natural Moisturising Factor (NMF) compounds, produced by the
skin, help maintain hydration by attracting water to the stratum corneum.
However, NMF levels can become insufficient under certain conditions,
necessitating the use of moisturizers (6).
These products reduce transepidermal water loss (TEWL), repair the skin
barrier, and restore softness (7).
Modern moisturizers often combine occlusive, humectant, and emollient agents to
provide effective hydration while avoiding greasiness, a common drawback of
overly occlusive formulations (8).
Using overly occlusive ingredients produces a greasy effect that may affect
acceptability. Therefore, it is necessary to add emollient ingredients to
provide a gentle effect on the skin (9).
Recent trends in skincare research have shifted towards
natural ingredients, including vegetable oils, for their multifunctional
benefits. Borneo Tallow Nut, Almond Oil, and Olive Oil are rich in fatty acids
like oleic acid and linoleic acid, as well as bioactive compounds such as
beta-sitosterol and squalene, which offer skin-softening, anti-inflammatory,
and antioxidant properties. These oils have shown the potential to restore the
skin barrier, reduce TEWL, and reduce irritation (10-12).
Oleic acid softens the skin, regenerates skin cells, moisturizes the skin, and
is a natural anti-inflammatory. Linolear acid helps restore skin barrier
function and reduces TEWL. Beta-sitosterol works to reduce itching and redness
and soothe irritated skin. Squalene regenerates cells and acts as an
antioxidant by protecting the skin from UV-induced lipid peroxidation (, ).
Declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflicting interest.
Data Availability
The unpublished data is available upon request to the corresponding author.
Based on
the potential of vegetable oils, in this research, we developed moisturizing
products in cream preparations with varying concentrations of Borneo Tallow
Nut, Almond Oil, and Olive Oil, which were designed using Design-Expert Version
11 to determine the effect of different concentrations of vegetable oils on the
physical characteristics of the cream, including organoleptic, homogeneity, pH,
viscosity, spreadability, adhesion, and stability.
Methodology or Experimental Section
Materials
The main ingredients are Borneo tallow nut (Shorea
mecistopteryx) (sample given from Balai Besar Penelitian dan Pengembangan Ekosistem Hutan Dipterokarpa, Indonesia), olive oil (Olea europaea) (NG Agro Farm Ltd., Indonesia),
almond oil (Oleum
amygdalae) (NG Agro Farm Ltd., Indonesia),
lipomulse luxe (Vantage Specialty Chemicals, Inc., USA), triethanolamine
(Reagent Grade, T58300, Sigma Aldrich, USA), edetate disodium (USP Reference Standard, 1233009, Sigma Aldrich, USA), isopropyl myristate (USP Reference Standard, 1350400, Sigma Aldrich, USA), propylene glycol (USP Grade, PHR1051, Supelco®, Merck KGaA, Germany),
dimethylol-5-5-dimethylhydantoin (USP Grade, PHR1358, Supelco®, Merck KGaA, Germany), water.
Tools
The tools used in this study were analytical
balance (FS-AR210INT-CAL, Fujitsu Ltd., Japan), hot plate (HP380-Pro LCD Digital Hotplate, Scilogex LLC., USA), pH meter (AZ®
86555, AZ Instrument Corp., Taiwan), brookfield viscometer (DVNext Rheometer, AMETEK Inc., USA), stopwatch, and laboratory glassware.
Preparation of Cream
A Simplex Lattice Design (SLD) was adopted to optimize
the formulation variables. The design formula for cream preparation can be seen
in Table 1. The Borneo tallow nut, almond oil, olive oil, lipomulse luxe, and
isopropyl myristate were melted in a hot plate at 70-80 °C (Mixture #1).
Edetate disodium, propylene
glycol, TEA, and DMDM hydantoin were dissolved in a hot plate at 70-80°C (Mixture
#2). Mixture #2 was put into a hot mortar, and Mixture #1 was added. Both phases were mixed slowly with continuous stirring to form a homogeneous dispersion while maintaining the temperature at 35-40°C, resulting in a creamy mass.
Evaluation of Cream
Organoleptic Test
The organoleptic test is intended to see the physical appearance of the cream, including its shape, color, and smell. The test specifications can be seen in Table 2.
pH Measurement
The pH of the 10% w/v cream suspension was measured at 25°C using a calibrated pH meter. It is essential for moisturizers to have a pH that closely aligns with the skin's natural pH, typically between 4.5 and 6.5, to avoid adverse effects. A too acidic pH may irritate, while an excessive pH of alkaline can lead to dryness. Before measurement, the pH meter was calibrated using standard buffer solutions with pH values of 4.0 and 7.0 to ensure accuracy (15).
Table 1. Composition of all formulations of cream.
Ingredients
Formulation
codes (% w/w)
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
F8
F9
F10
F11
F12
Borneo tallow nut
1
2
2
1.54
1
1.15
1.18
2
1.36
2
1.18
1.20
Almond oil
4.38
2
3.41
3.20
3.55
2.75
2
4
3.79
2.55
2
4.79
Olive oil
3.61
5
3.58
4.24
4.44
5.09
5.82
3
3.83
4.44
5.82
3
Lipomulse luxe
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
Isopropyl myristate
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
TEA
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
Edetate disodium
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
Propylene glycol
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
DMDM hydantoin
0.074
0.074
0.074
0.074
0.074
0.074
0.074
0.074
0.074
0.074
0.074
0.074
Water ad libitum
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
Table 2. Assessment criteria for homogeneity examination of cream.
Criteria
Description
Not homogeneous
The preparation separates, and
there are coarse grains or fulfills
one of the criteria (separate only or
there are only coarse grains)
Homogeneous
The preparation does not separate,
and there are no coarse grains
Table 3. Results of vegetable oils cream organoleptic observation.
Formulation
Color
Smell
Shape
F1
White
Odorless
Semi solid
F2
Yellowish white
Odorless
Semi solid
F3
Yellowish white
Odorless
Semi solid
F4
White
Odorless
Semi solid
F5
White
Odorless
Semi solid
F6
White
Odorless
Semi solid
F7
White
Odorless
Semi solid
F8
Yellowish white
Odorless
Semi solid
F9
White
Odorless
Semi solid
F10
Yellowish white
Odorless
Semi solid
F11
White
Odorless
Semi solid
F12
White
Odorless
Semi solid
Homogeneity
The homogeneity test method was conducted with modifications. Approximately 0.5 g of the cream was applied to a glass slide or another suitable transparent material. The formulation was assessed for a uniform appearance, ensuring no visible coarse particles were present. The criteria for evaluating homogeneity are detailed in Table 3.
The spreadability test was conducted to evaluate the formulation's ability to spread effectively when applied to the skin. An ideal moisturizer was expected to spread easily, ensuring optimal coverage and efficacy, with a target spreadability diameter of 5–7 cm. For the test, 0.5 g of the cream was placed on a transparent glass sheet positioned over graph paper. The formulation was allowed to spread naturally, after which it was covered with another transparent glass sheet. A 50 g weight was applied for 1 min, and the resulting spread diameter was measured (16).
Adhesion
A total of 0.5 g of preparation were spread on the disc glass, and on top of it, another glass was placed and pinned under a load of 250 g for 1 min. Then, the disc glass was mounted on the test equipment and weighed 250 g. The load was released, and the time was recorded up to the second object of the glasses falling off.
Stability
The cycling test was conducted over six cycles. The cream formulations were stored at a cold temperature (approximately 4°C) for 24 h, then transferred to a warm environment at approximately 40°C. This sequence constituted one complete cycle.
Result and Discussion
Evaluation of Cream
The development of topical products currently leads to the back-to-nature trend because they are considered relatively safer. This phenomenon provides an opportunity to explore the potential of vegetable oils as topical products that function as moisturizers.
Organoleptic Test
Organoleptic observations of the cream included an assessment of its odor, color, and texture. These observations were conducted to monitor the physical characteristics of each formulation during storage at room temperature (20–25°C) over 28 days. The results of the organoleptic evaluation are presented in Table 3.
Organoleptic observations revealed noticeable differences in color, with
higher concentrations of Borneo tallow nut resulting in a yellowish-white hue
in the cream formulations (F2, F3, F8, F10). This color change is likely due to
the natural pigments present in Borneo tallow nuts, which can impart a
yellowish tint when used in higher concentrations. Similar findings have been
reported in previous studies, where the inclusion of certain plant oils or
extracts led to color variations in cream formulations, reflecting the presence
of natural compounds such as carotenoids or other phytochemicals (17). The color variation could also
influence consumer perception, as natural colorants are often associated with
the product's authenticity and quality. However, the color change did not
significantly affect the other physical characteristics or the overall
acceptability of the cream, indicating that it remained a stable and effective
formulation despite the visual difference.
Homogeneity
Test
The homogeneity test was conducted to
assess the presence or absence of coarse particles in the cream formulations.
The results indicated that all formulas were homogeneous, with no visible
coarse grains detected. This suggests that the ingredients in the formulations
were well-mixed and uniformly distributed. The absence of coarse grains is a
positive indicator of the cream's quality, as it suggests that the
emulsification process was successful, ensuring a smooth and consistent
texture.
Stability
During storage, thermal stability,
viscosity, and spreadability are critical parameters that influence the
acceptability of topical product formulations. This study showed that all
formulations exhibited good stability when stored at 4°C and 40°C. None of the
formulations experienced phase separation, and there were no noticeable color,
odor, or texture changes. This suggests that the cream formulations maintained
their structural integrity and overall appearance under cold and warm storage
conditions, indicating robust thermal stability.
These findings are consistent with previous
studies on cream formulations that employed natural oils and emulsifiers, where
good thermal stability was observed, often attributed to the balanced
composition of the formulation and the proper selection of stabilizers (18). Phase
separation is a common issue in emulsions, especially under extreme temperature
conditions; however, the formulations in this study were well-protected against
such instability. This stability is essential for ensuring the shelf-life and
consumer acceptability of the product. The absence of significant changes in
physical properties further supports the potential for these formulations to be
used effectively as topical moisturizers, offering consistent performance over
time.
Response Surface Methodology
The influence of the main effects on the
response was further examined using response surface methodology (RSM), a
widely employed technique in developing and optimizing dosage formulations. The
corresponding two-dimensional contour response surface plots were generated
using the Design of Experiments (DoE) software. These plots are valuable for
visualizing independent variables' main effects and interactions, clearly
representing how the formulation components influence the response variables (see Figure 1).
Figure 1. Surface response plot showing the effect of Borneo tallow nut (@), almond oil (#), and olive oil (&) on cream’s pH (A), viscosity (B), spreadability (C), adhesion (D), and desirability (E), and their combination effect (F).
Impact on pH
The pH response was described by the
equation Y = 4.80902 (Borneo Tallow Nut) + 5.81892 (Almond Oil) + 5.82216
(Olive Oil). This equation suggests that all three ingredients (Borneo Tallow
Nut, Almond Oil, and Olive Oil) showed a positive interaction, indicating that
the combined concentrations of these oils did not significantly alter the pH of
the cream formulation.
The lack of significant change in pH
observed here is consistent with findings from previous studies, where
formulations containing vegetable oils or natural ingredients showed relatively
stable pH values, as these ingredients are often close to the skin's natural pH
(19). The minimal
impact on pH could be attributed to the buffering capacity of the oils, which
may help maintain the cream's acidity within the optimal range for skin
applications, typically between 4.5 and 6.5. This stability in pH is important
for ensuring the product's compatibility with the skin and preventing potential
irritation.
Impact on Viscosity
The effect on viscosity was described by the equation
Y = -22.6556 (A) (Borneo Tallow Nut) + 17.063 (B) (Almond Oil) + 18.9514 (C)
(Olive Oil) + 63.5282 (AB) (Borneo Tallow Nut and Almond Oil) + 50.6194 (AC)
(Borneo Tallow Nut and Olive Oil) - 12.3465 (BC) (Almond Oil and Olive Oil).
According to this equation, there was a negative interaction between Borneo
Tallow Nut and the combination of Almond Oil and Olive Oil, with values of
-22.6556 and -12.3465, respectively. This suggests that as the concentrations
of Borneo Tallow Nut, Almond Oil, and Olive Oil decreased, the viscosity of the
cream also decreased.
The observed negative interaction for Borneo
Tallow Nut implies that its presence in higher concentrations could increase
the viscosity while reducing its concentration could decrease the overall
viscosity of the formulation. Similarly, the combination of Almond Oil and
Olive Oil had a negative interaction, further supporting that lower
concentrations of these ingredients would reduce the cream's viscosity.
This finding aligns with previous studies, which
reported that oils with higher viscosity, such as olive oil, generally increase
the overall viscosity of topical formulations (20). However,
when combined with other oils, the viscosity may decrease depending on the
interactions between the oils' components. For instance, the viscosity-lowering
effect observed when reducing Almond Oil and Olive Oil concentrations may be
related to their fluidizing properties, which reduce the overall viscosity when
combined in certain ratios (21). Thus, the
formulation's viscosity can be controlled by adjusting the concentrations of
the individual oils to achieve the desired texture and spreadability for
optimal skin application.
Impact on Spreadability
The effect on spreadability was described by the
equation Y = -2.79063 (A) (Borneo Tallow Nut) + 8.14071 (B) (Almond Oil) +
6.14681 (C) (Olive Oil) + 27.6676 (AB) (Borneo Tallow Nut and Almond Oil) +
9.77358 (AC) (Borneo Tallow Nut and Olive Oil) + 4.03451 (BC) (Almond Oil and
Olive Oil) - 11.511 (ABC) (Borneo Tallow Nut, Almond Oil, and Olive Oil). The
equation revealed a negative interaction between Borneo Tallow Nut and the
combined oils (with a value of -11.511), indicating that as the concentration
of Borneo Tallow Nut decreased, the spreadability of the cream was negatively
affected, leading to reduced spreadability. Furthermore, adding the three oils
in smaller concentrations had a similar impact, decreasing the cream's
spreadability.
This observation can be explained by the unique
properties of Borneo Tallow Nut, which likely has a higher viscosity than
Almond Oil and Olive Oil. Borneo Tallow Nut may increase the cream's overall
consistency when included in larger concentrations, making it less spreadable.
On the other hand, combining all three oils in smaller amounts seems to
interact synergistically, with a slight reduction in spreadability. This
suggests that lower concentrations of the oils result in a formulation with
less fluidity and easier spreadability.
These findings are consistent with previous
studies, showing that oils with higher viscosities or thicker textures reduce
spreadability (22). Conversely,
lighter oils often improve spreadability due to their fluid nature. For example,
Almond Oil and Olive Oil are generally considered emollients that enhance skin
smoothness and facilitate the easy spreading of formulations (9, 23). However, as
seen in this study, the interaction between oils can lead to a complex balance,
where the combined presence of multiple oils in small amounts can reduce the
spreadability compared to individual oils used in higher concentrations.
Therefore, the formulation's spreadability can be optimized by adjusting the
oil concentrations to balance fluidity and consistency.
Impact on Adhesion
The effect on adhesion was described by the
equation Y = 383.5 (A) (Borneo Tallow Nut) + 78.8566 (B) (Almond Oil) -10.4264
(C) (Olive Oil) -6552.05 (AB) (Borneo Tallow Nut and Almond Oil) -6970.06 (AC)
(Borneo Tallow Nut and Olive Oil) + 74.8266 (BC) (Almond Oil and Olive Oil) +
6710.19 (ABC) (Borneo Tallow Nut, Almond Oil, and Olive Oil). This equation
revealed a negative interaction between Olive Oil and the combinations of
Borneo Tallow Nut with Almond Oil (with a value of -6552.05) and Borneo Tallow Nut with Olive Oil (with a value of -6970.06), suggesting that these combinations led to a decrease in the adhesion properties of the cream. However, Almond Oil and Olive Oil showed a positive interaction (74.8266), indicating that their combination enhanced adhesion.
The specific characteristics of the oils involved can explain the negative interactions observed. Borneo Tallow Nut, which has a higher molecular weight and a thicker consistency compared to Almond Oil and Olive Oil, may reduce the adhesion of the formulation when combined with these oils. The higher viscosity of Borneo Tallow Nut could create a denser formulation, limiting its ability to adhere effectively to the skin. Additionally, when Borneo Tallow Nut is combined with either Almond Oil or Olive Oil, the overall texture may become too greasy or oily, hindering adhesion.
In contrast, the combination of Almond Oil and Olive Oil improved adhesion, likely due to their synergistic effects. Both oils are known for their emollient properties, which may enhance the cream's ability to spread and adhere to the skin. Previous studies have demonstrated that oils with lower viscosities and better skin penetration properties can improve the adhesion of topical formulations (24). Balancing
the oils and their respective concentrations may optimize the cream's adhesion
by providing a smoother, more flexible texture.
Desirability
After deriving
the model equation that links the main effects and responses of various cream
formulations containing Borneo Tallow Nut, Almond Oil, and Olive Oil, the
optimal values for the response variables were determined to be 1.349 for
Borneo Tallow Nut, 3.598 for Almond Oil, and 4.051 for Olive Oil. Based on
these values, the optimal formulation achieved a desirability score of 0.718.
This optimal
formulation suggests a balanced combination of the three ingredients to achieve
the best overall performance, considering factors such as pH, viscosity,
spreadability, and adhesion. The desirability value of 0.718 indicates that the
formulation closely approached the ideal conditions for these properties, which
are crucial for the product's effectiveness and consumer acceptability.
The values for
the individual oils reflect their respective contributions to the cream's
formulation. Borneo Tallow Nut, being a higher-viscosity component, likely
contributes to the formulation's stability and texture, while Almond Oil and
Olive Oil, known for their emollient and moisturizing properties, enhance the
spreadability and skin feel of the cream. The interaction between these oils
creates a formulation that balances thickness and spreadability, essential for
a topical cream that provides both effective coverage and ease of application. These
findings are consistent with previous studies that have used optimization
techniques, such as response surface methodology, to design topical
formulations. For example, a study by Trindade G. et al. (2024) used similar
approaches to optimize the composition of natural oil-based creams, finding
that a balanced combination of oils led to improved physical properties,
including better spreadability and adhesion (25).
Conclusion
The present study demonstrated that a cream
formulation containing Borneo Tallow Nut, Almond Oil, and Olive Oil exhibited
good thermo-physical stability. The optimal formulation was achieved with
1.349% b/b Borneo Tallow Nut, 3.598% b/b Almond Oil, and 4.051% b/b Olive Oil.
This formulation showed favorable properties, including a pH of 5.702,
viscosity of 16.851 CPs, spreadability of 8.147 cm, and stickiness of 63.682
seconds, with a desirability value of 0.718. These results suggest combining
these ingredients can produce a stable and effective cream with desirable
physical characteristics for topical use.
Based on the
findings, Borneo Tallow Nut, Olive Oil, and Almond Oil are promising excipients
for cream formulations, providing a balance of stability, spreadability, and
adhesion. These oils, individually and in combination, contribute to the
overall performance of the cream, making it suitable for skin care
applications. Using response surface methodology, the optimization process
successfully identified the optimal concentrations of these oils, underscoring
their potential in cosmetic formulations. This study supports the growing
interest in natural oils as key components in skin care products, aligning with
previous research highlighting the efficacy of such ingredients in enhancing
product quality and user satisfaction.
Dry
skin, a common dermatological issue affecting individuals across all age groups,
often disrupts the skin's protective barrier, leading to discomfort and
increased sensitivity. Addressing this condition involves the use of
moisturizers, which play a vital role in restoring skin hydration. In this
study, a cream preparation was successfully developed using vegetable oils,
including Borneo Tallow Nut, Almond Oil, and Olive Oil. The cream formula was
optimized using the Design-Expert software with the Simplex Lattice Design
(SLD) method to evaluate the impact of different concentrations of these oils
on the cream's pH, viscosity, spreadability, and adhesion. The results
demonstrated that the cream exhibited excellent thermo-physical stability, with
optimum values of Borneo Tallow Nut at 1.349% w/w, Almond Oil at 3.598% w/w,
and Olive Oil at 4.051% w/w. The cream achieved a pH value of 5.702, viscosity
of 16.851 Cp, spreadability of 8.147 cm, and adhesion of 63.682 s, with a
desirability score of 0.718. This research confirms that Borneo Tallow Nut,
Olive Oil, and Almond Oil have significant potential as excipients in cream
formulations.
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